Pathophysiological mechanisms of development of epilepsy and special features of epileptogenesis in the immature brain
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.15574/SP.2021.114.26Keywords:
newborn, brain, pathophysiology, seizures, epilepsy, reviewAbstract
The article is devoted to the urgent problem of neonatology and pediatric neurology — seizures in newborns and young children. The work analyzes the scientific literature on the pathogenetic mechanisms of the development of the epileptic process, which is based on the anatomical and physiological mechanisms of the functioning of brain cells, in particular, in newborns and young children.
New pathophysiological data on the increased excitability of the developing brain are described. It has been shown that the implementation of the mechanism of increased excitability of the fetal brain may be due to the peculiarities of the functioning of NMDA, AMPA, kainate receptors, and the peculiarities of the localization of ion channels in different brain structures. The paradoxical (exciting, depolarizing) role of gamma-aminobutyric acid, which is due to the peculiarities of the activation of chlorine co-transporters, is emphasized.
The features of the epileptic process in newborns and young children have been determined. The reasons for the development of seizures in newborns are emphasized. The classification and clinical phenotypes of neonatal seizures are considered. It is emphasized that the convulsions in newborns rarely have a deployed clinical picture and are often represented by abortive or focal seizures, which is associated with the ontogenetic features of the fetal brain, namely: incomplete by the time of the birth of a cortical-neural organization, synaptogenesis and myelination of its structures, insufficiency of the development of commulectral intermetrous bonds , uneven representation in the cortex of ion channels with a relatively well-formed limbico-reticular system and its bond with a brain barrel. It was noted that despite various clinical manifestations, the newborn has four main types of seizures: subtitle (erased, abortive, fragmentary), tonic, clonic and myocloniс.
No conflict of interest was declared by the authors.
References
Al Zwaini EJ, Al Ani MM, Mengal AH. (2007). The epidemiology of clinical neonatal seizures in Ramadi city. Neurosciences. 12: 170–172.
Avantsini D. (2005). Perspektivy epileptologii. Zhurn nevrolog i psikhiatr. 8: 57–59.
Aykardi ZH, Baks M, Gillberg K. (2013). Diseases of the nervous system in children. Trans from the English. Ed AA Skoromets. Moscow: 1036.
Ayvazyan SO, Shiryayev YUS, Golovteyev AL, Kozhokaru AB, Kremenchugskaya MR. (2009). Neinvazivnyy video-EEG-monitoring v diagnostike fokal'noy epilepsii u detey. Voprosy neyrokhirurgii im. N.N. Burdenko. 1: 33–41.
Barria A, Malinow R. (2002). Subunit-Specific NMDA Receptor Trafficking to Synapses. Neuron. 35 (2): 345-353. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0896-6273(02)00776-6
Bate L, Gardiner M. (1999). Genetics of inherited epilepsies. J Epileptic Disorders. 1: 850-854. 1 (1): 7 19. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1462399499001349; PMid:14585118
Baulac M. (2003). Pharmacogenetics and epilepsy: Ion channels and the tapeutic responce. 5-th Sanofi Synthelabo symposium on epilepsy management: 59.
Ben Ari Y, Gaiarsa JL, Tyzio R, Khazipov R. (2007). GABA: A pioneer transmitter that excites immature neurons and generates primitive oscillations. Physiol Rev. 87 (4): 1215-1284. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00017.2006; PMid:17928584
Borusiak P, Zilbauer M, Jenke AC. (2010). Prevalence of epileptiform discharges in healthy children - new data from a prospective study using digital EEG. Epilepsia. 51 (7): 1185-1188. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2009.02411.x; PMid:20002145
Bulakhova LO. (1994). Yepilepsiya i sudomni stani u ditey. Meditsina ditinstva: Navchal'niy posibnik dlya interniv medichnikh vuziv i kursantiv institutiv (fak.) Udoskonalennya likariv. Kiyv: «Zdorov'ya». 2: 723-734.
Chapman KE, Raol YH, Brooks Kayal A. (2012). Neonatal seizures: controversies and challenges in translating new therapies from the lab to the isolette. European Journal of Neuroscience. 35 (12): 1857-1865. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-9568.2012.08140.x; PMid:22708596 PMCid:PMC3383637
Cherubin E, Gaiarsa JL, Ben Ari Y. (1991). GABA: An excitatory transmitter in early postnatal life. Trends Neurosci. 14 (12): 515-519. https://doi.org/10.1016/0166-2236(91)90003-D
Ctudenikin VM, Shamansurov SHSH. (2014). Neonatal'naya nevrologiya. Medforum. Moskva: 480.
Durand GM, Zukin RS. (1993). Developmental regulation of mRNAs Encoding Rat Brain Kainate/AMPA Receptors: A Northern Analysis Study. J Neurochem. 61 (6): 2239-2246. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-4159.1993.tb07465.x; PMid:8245974
Dzhala VI, Talos DM, Sdrulla DA, Brumback AC, Mathews GC et al. (2005). NKCC1 transporter facilitates seizures in the developing brain. Nat Med. 11 (11): 1205-1213. Epub 2005 Oct 9. https://doi.org/10.1038/nm1301; PMid:16227993
Evans D, Levene M. (1998). Neonatal seizures. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 78 (1): 70-75. https://doi.org/10.1136/fn.78.1.F70; PMid:9536846 PMCid:PMC1720746
Fattakhova AKH, Karunas AS, Khusnutdinova EK. (2005). Molekulyarno-geneticheskiye aspekty epilepsii. Zhurn nevrolog i psikhiatr. 6: 72-76.
Ferriero D. (2004). Neonatal brain injury. New Engl J Med. 351 (19): 1985-1995. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra041996; PMid:15525724
Fisher RS, Cross JH, French JA, Higurashi N, Hirsch E et al. (2017). Operational classification of seizure types by the International League Against Epilepsy: Position Paper of the ILAE Commission for Classification and Terminology. Epilepsia. 58 (4): 522-530. Epub 2017 Mar 8. https://doi.org/10.1111/epi.13670; PMid:28276060
Gastaut H. (1973). Dictionary of Epilepsy. Geneva: World Health Organization.
Geiger JR, Melcher T, Koh DS, Sakmann B, Seeburg PH et al. (1995). Relative abundance of subunit mRNAs determines gating and Ca2+ permeability of AMPA receptors in principal neurons and interneurons in rat CNS. Neuron. 15 (1): 193-204. https://doi.org/10.1016/0896-6273(95)90076-4
Guzeva VI. (2007). Epilepsiya i neepilepticheskiye paroksizmal'nyye sostoyaniya u detey. Moskva: MIA: 567.
Hauser WA, Annegers JF, Kurland LT. (1991). Prevalence of epilepsy in Rochester, Minnesota: 1940-1980. Epilepsia. 32 (4): 429-445. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1157.1991.tb04675.x; PMid:1868801
Holmes GL. (2005). Effects of seizures on brain development: lessons from the laboratory. Pediatr Neurol. 33 (1): 1-11. Epub 2005 Apr 13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2004.12.003; PMid:15993318
Isaac JTR, Ashby MC, McBain CJ. (2007). The Role of the GluR2 subunit in AMPA receptor function and synaptic plasticity. Neuron. 21. 54 (6): 859-871. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2007.06.001; PMid:17582328
Jozwiak S, Kotulska K, Domanska Pakiela D, Lojszczyk B, Syczewska М et al. (2011). Antiepileptic treatment before the onset of seizures reduces epilepsy severity and risk of mental retardation in infants with tuberous sclerosis complex. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 15 (5): 424-431. Epub 2011 Apr 19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpn.2011.03.010; PMid:21507691
Jozwiak S, Stowinska M, Borkowska J et al. (2019). Preventive Antiepileptic Treatment in Tuberous Sclerosis Complex: A Long-Term, Prospective Trial. Pediatr Neurol. 101: 18-25. Epub 2019 Jul 23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2019.07.008; PMid:31481332
Karlov VA. (1990). Epilepsiya. Moskva: Meditsina: 336.
Karlov VA. (2017). Ucheniye ob epilepticheskoy sisteme. Zasluga otechestvennoy nauchnoy shkoly. Epilepsiya i paroksizmal'nyye sostoyaniya. 9 (4): 76-85. https://doi.org/10.17749/2077-8333.2017.9.4.076-085
Khalilov IA. (2019). Vtorichnyy epileptogenez v gippokampe novorozhdennykh krys: d-ra biol nauk: 03.03.01. Kazan': 257.
Kidd FL, Isaac JTR. (1999). Developmental and activity-dependent regulation of kainate receptors at thalamocortical synapses. Nature. 5. 400 (6744): 569-573. https://doi.org/10.1038/23040; PMid:10448859
Koenigsberger R. (1999). Neonatal seizures. International Pediatrics. 14: 204-207.
Koh DS, Geiger JR, Jonas P, Sakmann B. (1995). Ca (2+)-permeable AMPA and NMDA receptor channels in basket cells of rat hippocampal dentate gyrus. J Physiol. 1. 485 (2): 383-402. https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.1995.sp020737; PMid:7545230 PMCid:PMC1158000
Kryzhanovskiy GN. (1980). Determinantnyye struktury v patologii nervnoy sistemy. Moskva: Meditsina: 358.
Kumar SS, Bacci A, Kharazia V, Huguenard JR. (2002). A developmental switch of AMPA receptor subunits in neocortical pyramidal neurons. Journal of Neuroscience. 15. 22 (8): 3005-3015. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.22-08-03005.2002; PMid:11943803 PMCid:PMC6757523
Laroia N. (2000). Current controversies in diagnosis and management of neonatal seizures. Indian Pediatrics. 37 (4): 367-372. PMID: 10781229.
Lau CG, Zukin RS. (2007). NMDA receptor trafficking in synaptic plasticity and neuropsychiatric disorders. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 8 (6): 413-426. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2153; PMid:17514195
Lee K, Goodman L, Fourie C, Schenk S, Leitch B, Montgomery JM. (2016). AMPA Receptors as Therapeutic Targets for Neurological Disorders. Adv Protein Chem Struct Biol. 103: 203. Epub 2015 Nov 19. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.apcsb.2015.10.004; PMid:26920691
Lennox WG, Lennox MA. (1960). Epilepsy and related disorders. Boston: Little, Brown and Company.
Liu SJ, Zukin RS. (2007). Ca2+-permeable AMPA receptors in synaptic plasticity and neuronal death. Trends In Neurosciences. 30 (3): 126-134. Epub 2007 Feb 1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.01.006; PMid:17275103
Loddenkemper T, Talos DM, Cleary RT, Joseph A, Fernandez Sanchez I et al. (2014). Subunit composition of glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid receptors in status epilepticus. Epilepsy Res. 108 (4): 605-615. Epub 2014 Feb 2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2014.01.015; PMid:24613745 PMCid:PMC6294571
Lombroso C. (2007). Neonatal seizures: gaps between the laboratory and the clinic. Epilepsia. 2: 83-106. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2007.01070.x; PMid:17571356
Lu W, Shi Y, Jackson AC, Bjorgan K, During MJ et al. (2009). Subunit composition of synaptic AMPA receptors revealed by a single-cell genetic approach. Neuron. 30. 62 (2): 254-268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2009.02.027; PMid:19409270 PMCid:PMC3632349
Majkowski J. (1986). Padaczka: Diagnostyka-leczenie-zapoliganie. Warszawa: PZWL: 344.
Martyniuk VYu. (2003). Sudorozhnyye sostoyaniya u detey. Kyiv: 34.
McBride M, Laroia N, Guillet R. (2000). Electrographic seizures in neonates correlate with poor neurodevelopment outcome. Neurology. 22. 55 (4): 506-513. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.55.4.506; PMid:10953181
Mizrahi E, Hrachovy R, Kellaway P. (2003). Atlas of Neonatal Electroencephalography. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins: 274.
Mizrahi EM, Pellock JM, Bourgeois BF, Dodson WE. (2008). Neonatal seizures. Pediatric Epilepsy diagnosis and therapy. New York: Demos. 229-240.
Monaghan DT, Cotman CW. (1982). The distribution of [3H] kainic acid binding sites in rat CNS as determined by autoradiography. Brain research. 2. 252 (1): 91-100. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-8993(82)90981-7
Moshe SL, Sharpless NS, Kaplan J. (1981). Kindling in developing rats: variability of afterdischarge thresholds with age. Brain Res. 27. 211 (1): 190-195. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-8993(81)90082-2
Mukhin KYu, Petrukhin AS, Shlukhova LYu. (2004). Epilepsiya. Atlas klinicheskoy diagnostiki. Moskva: Al'vares Pablishing: 440.
Nicholls D, Attwell D. (1990). The release and uptake of excitatory amino acids. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 11 (11): 462-468. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-6147(90)90129-V
Ohtahara S, Yamatogi Y. (2003). Epileptic encephalopathies in early infancy with suppression-burst. J Clin Neurophysiol. 20 (6): 398-407. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004691-200311000-00003; PMid:14734930
Okudzhava VM. (1988). Neyrofiziologicheskiye mekhanizmy prekrashcheniya epilepticheskogo pripadka i voprosy farmakologii antikonvul'santov. Vsesoyuznyy s'yezd nevropatologov i psikhiatrov 8 (3): 410-411.
Olejniczak P. (2006). Neurophysiologic basis of EEG. J Clinical Neurophysiology. 23 (3): 186-189. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.wnp.0000220079.61973.6c; PMid:16751718
Pal'chik AB, Shabalov NP. (2009). Gipoksicheski-ishemicheskaya entsefalopatiya novorozhdennykh. Moskva: MEDpressinform: 253.
Patrizi S, Holmes GL, Orzalesi M, Allemand F. (2003). Neonatal seizures: characteristic of EEG ictal activity in preterm and fullterm infants. Brain Dev. 25 (6): 427-437. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0387-7604(03)00031-7
Pellegrini Giampietro DE, Gorter JA, Bennett MV, Zukin RS. (1997). The GluR2 (GluR-B) hypothesis: Ca (2+)-permeable AMPA receptors in neurological disorders. Trends In Neurosciences. 20 (10): 464-470. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2236(97)01100-4
Petrukhin AS, Mukhin KYU, Voronkova KV, Pylayeva OA. (2005). Osobennosti epilepsii u detey i podrostkov. Zhurn nevrol i psikhiat: Nauchno-prakticheskiy retsenziruyemyy zhurnal. 105 (11): 65-66.
Pickard L, Noel J, Henley JM, Collingridge GL, Molnar E. (2000). Developmental Changes in Synaptic AMPA and NMDA Receptor Distribution and AMPA Receptor Subunit Composition in Living Hippocampal Neurons. Journal of Neuroscience. 1. 20 (21): 7922-7931. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.20-21-07922.2000; PMid:11050112 PMCid:PMC6772733
Plotkin MD, Snyder EY, Hebert SC, Delpire E. (1997). Expression of the Na-K-2Cl cotransporter is developmentally regulated in postnatal rat brains: a possible mechanism underlying GABA's excitatory role in immature brain. Journal of Neurobiology. 20. 33 (6): 781-795. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4695(19971120)33:6<781::AID-NEU6>3.0.CO;2-5
Ponyatishin AYe, Pal'chik AB. (2010). Elektroentsefalografiya v neonatal'noy nevrologii. SPb: SOTIS: 172.
Pylayeva OA, Mukhin KYU. (2009). Fenomen vtorichnoy bilateral'noy istorii sinkhronizatsii na EEG: opisaniye. Russkiy zhurnal detskoy nevrologii. 4: 39-46.
Rajasekaran K, Todorovic M, Kapur J. (2012). Calcium-permeable AMPA receptors are expressed in a rodent model of status epilepticus. Annals Of Neurology. 72 (1): 91-102. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.23570; PMid:22829271 PMCid:PMC3408623
Rakhade SN, Jensen FE. (2009). Epileptogenesis in the immature brain: emerging mechanisms. Nat Rev Neurol. 5 (7): 380-391. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrneurol.2009.80; PMid:19578345 PMCid:PMC2822660
Rakhade SN, Zhou C, Aujla PK, Fishman R, Sucher NJ, Jensen FE. (2008). Early аlterations of AMPA receptors mediate synaptic potentiation induced by neonatal seizures. Journal of Neuroscience. 6. 28 (32): 7979 7990. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1734-08.2008; PMid:18685023 PMCid:PMC2679369
Rennie JM. (1997). Neonatal seizures. Eur J Pediatr. 156 (2): 83-87. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004310050559; PMid:9039506
Ronen GM, Buckley D, Penney S, Streiner DL. (2007). Long-term prognosis in children with neonatal seizures. Neurology. 6. 69 (19): 1816-1822. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.wnl.0000279335.85797.2c; PMid:17984448
Ronen GM, Penney S, Andrews W. (1999). The epidemiology of clinical neonatal seizures in Newfoundland: a population based study. J Pediatr. 134 (1): 71-75. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3476(99)70374-4
Saliba RM, Annegers JF, Waller DK, Tyson JE, Mizrahi EM. (1999). Incidence of neonatal seizures in Harris County, Texas, 1992-1994. Am J Epidemiol. 1. 150 (7): 763-769. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a010079; PMid:10512430
Sanchez RM, Jensen FE. (2001). Maturational aspects of epilepsy mechanisms and consequences for the immature brain. Epilepsia. 42 (5): 577-585. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1528-1157.2001.12000.x; PMid:11380563
Saradzhishvili PM, Geladze TSH. (1977). Epilepsiya. Moskva: Meditsina. 304.
Scher M. (2002). Controversies regarding neonatal seizure recognition. Epileptic Disord. 4 (2): 139-158. PMID: 12105077.
Scher M. (2003). Prenatal contributions to epilepsy: lessons from the. Epileptic Disord. 5 (2): 77-791. PMID: 12875951.
Sheth RD. (1999). Electroencephalogram confirmatory rate in neonatal seizures. Pediatr Neurol. 20 (1): 27-30. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0887-8994(98)00078-2
Shinnar S, Pellock JM, Moshe SL, Maytal J, O'Dell C et al. (1997). In whom does status epilepticus occur: age-related differences in children. Epilepsia. 38 (8): 907-914. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1157.1997.tb01256.x; PMid:9579892
Swanson GT, Kamboj SK, Cull Candy SG. (1997). Single-channel properties of recombinant AMPA receptors depend on RNA editing, splice variation, and subunit composition. Journal of Neuroscience. 17 (1): 58-69. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.17-01-00058.1997; PMid:8987736 PMCid:PMC6793687
Talos DM, Fishman RE, Park H, Folkerth RD, Follett PL et al. (2006). Developmental regulation of alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionic acid receptor subunit expression in forebrain and relationship to regional susceptibility to hypoxic/ischemic injury. I Rodent cerebral white matter and cortex. J Comp Neurol. 1. 497 (1): 42-60. https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.20972; PMid:16680782 PMCid:PMC4313670
Talos DM, Follett PL, Folkerth RD, Fishman RE, Trachtenberg FL et al. (2006). Developmental regulation of alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionic acid receptor subunit expression in forebrain and relationship to regional susceptibility to hypoxic/ischemic injury. II. Human cerebral white matter and cortex. J Comp Neurol. 1. 497(1): 61-77. https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.20978; PMid:16680761 PMCid:PMC2987718
Thurman DJ, Beghi E, Begley CE, Berg AT, Buchhalter JR et al. (2011). Standards for epidemiologic studies and surveillance of epilepsy. Epilepsia. 7: 2-26. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2011.03121.x; PMid:21899536
Traynelis SF, Wollmuth LP, McBain CJ, Menniti FS, Vance KM. (2010). Glutamate receptor ion channels: structure, regulation, and function. Pharmacological Reviews. 62 (3): 405-496. https://doi.org/10.1124/pr.109.002451; PMid:20716669 PMCid:PMC2964903
Tsuchiya D, Kunishima N, Kamiya N, Jingami H, Morikawa K. (2002). Structural Views of the Ligand-Binding Cores of a Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor Complexed with an Antagonist and Both Glutamate and Gd3+. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 99 (5): 2660-2665. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.052708599; PMid:11867751 PMCid:PMC122404
Vasudevan C, Levene M. (2013). Epidemiology and aetiology of neonatal seizures. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 18 (4): 185-191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.siny.2013.05.008; PMid:23746578
Verroti A, Latini G, Cicioni P, De Felice С. (2004). New trends in neonatal seizures. J Pediatr Neurol. 2 (4): 191-197.
Volpe J. (2008). Neonatal seizures. Neurology of the Newborn 5th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders. 203-204. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-4160-3995-2.10005-6
Wang C, Shimizu Okabe C, Watanabe K, Okabe A, Matsuzaki H, Ogawa T, Mori N, Fukuda A, Sato K. (2002). Developmental changes in KCC1, KCC2, and NKCC1 mRNA expressions in the rat brain. Brain Res Devel Brain Res. 139 (1): 59-66. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-3806(02)00536-9
Ward AA, Wyler AR. (1981). The epileptic neuron. Neurophysiological mechanisms of epilepsy. Tbilisi: 60-74.
Weiner SP, Painter MJ, Geva D et al. (1991). Neonatal seizures: electroclinical dissociation. Pediatr Neurol. 7 (5): 363-368. https://doi.org/10.1016/0887-8994(91)90067-U
Witte OW, Freund HJ. (1999). Neuronal dysfunction, epilepsy and postlesional brain plasticity. Adv Neurol. 81: 25-36. PMID: 10608999.
Woody WM. (1998). The development of voltage-gated ion channels and its relation to activity-dependent development events. Curr Top Dev Biol. 39: 159-185. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0070-2153(08)60455-X
Yevtushenko SK, Omel'yanenko AA. (2005). Klinicheskaya elektroentsefalografiya u detey. Donetsk: Donechchina: 860.
Yu LMY, Polygalov D, Wintzer ME, Chiang M C, McHugh TJ. (2016). CA3 Synaptic Silencing Attenuates Kainic Acid-Induced Seizures and Hippocampal Network Oscillations. eNeuro. 7. 3 (1): ENEURO.0003-16.2016. eCollection. Jan Feb 2016. https://doi.org/10.1523/ENEURO.0003-16.2016; PMid:27022627 PMCid:PMC4797997
Zenkov LR, Mel'nichuk PV. (1985). Tsentral'nyye mekhanizmy afferentatsii u cheloveka. Moskva: Meditsina: 271.
Zenkov LR. (2010). Klinicheskaya epileptologiya s elementami neyrofiziologii. Rukovodstvo dlya vrachey. Moskva: Meditsinskoye infarmatsionnoye agentstvo: 408.
Zhu JJ, Esteban JA, Hayashi Y, Malinow R. (2000). Postnatal Synaptic Potentiation: Delivery of GluR4-Containing AMPA Receptors by Spontaneous Activity. Nature Neuroscience. 3 (11): 1098-1106. https://doi.org/10.1038/80614; PMid:11036266
Zhulev NM, Saykova LA. (2005). Sergey Nikolayevich Davidenkov: zhizn'i tvorcheskaya deyatel'nost'. Sankt Peterburg: Izdatel'skiy dom SPbMA-PO: 63.
Zykov VP. (2018). Diagnostika i lecheniye zabolevaniy nervnoy sistemy u detey. Moskva: Triada: 432.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2021 Modern Pediatrics. Ukraine
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
The policy of the Journal “MODERN PEDIATRICS. UKRAINE” is compatible with the vast majority of funders' of open access and self-archiving policies. The journal provides immediate open access route being convinced that everyone – not only scientists - can benefit from research results, and publishes articles exclusively under open access distribution, with a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 international license (СС BY-NC).
Authors transfer the copyright to the Journal “MODERN PEDIATRICS. UKRAINE” when the manuscript is accepted for publication. Authors declare that this manuscript has not been published nor is under simultaneous consideration for publication elsewhere. After publication, the articles become freely available on-line to the public.
Readers have the right to use, distribute, and reproduce articles in any medium, provided the articles and the journal are properly cited.
The use of published materials for commercial purposes is strongly prohibited.
